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The following information is quoted from David Palmer's book In Search of Cumorah

...and the land north was called Mulek, which was after the son of Zedekiah; for the Lord did bring Mulek into the land north...it being the place of their first landing. And they came from there up into the south wilderness. (Helaman 6:10, Alma 22:30-31)

The Book of Mormon was not written as a comprehensive history, but rather as the record of the people of Nephi. It is, therefore, only from occasional glimpses that we catch the impact upon the Nephites of their contemporaries. The story of Mormon's Cumorah would not be complete without bringing into focus the Mulekites, a major group of people who bridged the historical gap between destruction of the Jaredites and the rise of Nephite culture.

The context of the Mulekite contact with Jaredite culture is useful in further substantiating a Gulf Coast location for Mormon's Cumorah. We will go beyond that encounter, however, and follow the Mulekites as they developed their culture in the land of Zarahemla and branched out into other areas.

Who were the Mulekites?

The account by Mormon speaks of the "people of Zarahemla," a group found by the Nephites in about 250 BC. The Nephites encountered them after leaving their mountain valley home of the Land of Nephi to avoid persecution by the Lamanites. The people serving King Zarahemla were more numerous than the Nephites. (Omni 13-22; Mosiah 25:2) Zarahemla was a descendant of Mulek, the only son of King Zedekiah to survive the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem. (Helaman 3:21) The word "Mulekites" is not found in the Book of Mormon. However, it is an apt designation for not only those under the leadership of Zarahemla, but also others in the original migration whose descendants went to other areas of Mesoamerica.

Migration from Jerusalem

The Mulekite migration to the New World appears to have been between the destruction of Jerusalem, 587 BC, and the overthrow of Babylon in 539 BC. This I adduce from the phrase "driven out," used in the following account:

And now we know that Jerusalem was destroyed according to the words of Jeremiah...And now will you dispute that Jerusalem was destroyed? Will ye say that the sons of Zedekiah (king of Judah) were not slain, all except it were Mulek? Yea, and do ye not behold that the seed of Zedekiah are with us, and they were driven out of the land of Jerusalem? (Helaman 8:20-21)

The idea that they may have been led by men of God is conveyed by this statement:

Mosiah discovered that the people of Zarahemla came out from Jerusalem at the time that Zedekiah, king of Judah, was carried away captive into Babylon. And they journeyed in the wilderness, and were brought by the hand of the Lord across the great waters, into the land where Mosiah discovered them. (Omni 15-16)

There are two indications that the Mulekites crossed the Atlantic Ocean rather than the Pacific Ocean. First, the people of Mulek encountered the sole survivor of the Jaredite battle which occurred at the hill Ramah, known to be located near the eastern sea...Second, the city of Mulek was on the eastern seacoast (Alma 51:26)...

The Phoenician Connection

It is likely that the migration would have been made with assistance from the Phoenicians. Ross T. Christensen (1972) has shown that the Phoenicians were allies of the Jews at that time. They also had the sailing expertise, having circumnavigated Africa in 600 BC. There is also a hint in the Book of Mormon; the only named river was called "Sidon," which was the name of the principal metropolis of Phoenicia.

Most evidence for Phoenician influences in America is quite indirect, involving comparisons of traits or trait complexes. Such studies began around the turn of the century when a leading Americanist, Zelia Nuttall, documented a number of parallels between Phoenician and Mesoamerican culture. (Nuttall, 1901) Her work was largely ignored, but others have tried the same approach, such as Constance Irwin. (1963) Thomas Stuart Ferguson (1957) drew parallels from the cultures of a broad area of the Middle East with Mesoamerican culture. The most impressive comparisons of trait complexes were compiled by Sorenson. (1971)

We do not have to prove a major Phoenician influence in America because the Book of Mormon does not require it. Indeed, the language of the Mulekites, or possibly multiple languages of the Mulekites if we include the Phoenicians, changed radically in the three or four hundred years preceding their encounter with the Nephites. ( Omni 17) This suggests significant influence by natives who spoke the ancient tongues, and who may have superimposed native cultural tradition on the newcomers.

The Coriantumr Encounter

The discovery of Coriantumr, the last king of one of the warring Jaredite factions, was an event which tied the Jaredite history chronologically and geographically to other Book of Mormon events. Soon after the Nephites and Mulekites peaceably combined, a stela was brought to King Mosiah.

And it came to pass in the days of Mosiah there was a large stone brought unto him with engravings on it: and he did interpret the engravings by the gift and power of god. And they gave an account of one Coriantumr, and the slain of his people. And Coriantumr was discovered by the people Zarahemla; and he dwelt with them for the space of nine moons. It also spake a few words concerning his fathers. And his first parents came out from the tower, at the time the Lord confounded the language of the people; and the severity of the Lord fell upon them according to his judgments, which are just; and their bones lay scattered in the land northward. (Omni 20-21)

Two Mulekite Landings

We are told that the Mulekites landed in more than one place. Their first landing was north of the narrow neck, and by implication their second was south of it.

And it (Bountiful) bordered upon the land which they called Desolation, it being so far northward that it came into the land which had been peopled and been destroyed, of whose bones we have spoken, which was discovered by the people of Zarahemla, it being the place of their first landing. And they came from there up into the south wilderness. Thus the land on the northward was called Desolation, and the land of the southward was called Bountiful...(Alma 22:30-31)

Another verse emphasizes this fact that the Mulekites first landed north of the isthmus:

Now the land south was called Lehi and the land north was called Mulek, which was after the son of Zedekiah; for the Lord did bring Mulek into the land north and Lehi into the land south. (Helaman 6:10)

From these passages it has been supposed, and I believe correctly, that the Mulekites encountered Coriantumr and the remains of the Jaredites shortly after their first landing north of the isthmus. The nearness of their "first landing" to Ramah and the time lapse before they found Coriantumr is not spelled out. I have assumed that Coriantumr did not travel far, due to his battle wounds, and that his eventual death could have been a consequence of that battle or possibly old age. I have also guessed that the Mulekites found Coriantumr within a few years of landing in the land northward. The uncertainty in dating this encounter is transparent. However, I shall be bold and place the encounter between 530 and 575 BC, with the Jaredite battle sometime between 550 and 600 BC.

I suggest that the Mulekites landed somewhere between the Tuxtlas on the south and Tampico on the north. Some of the groups, perhaps not all, traveled towards the isthmus and came upon Coriantumr and evidence of the Jaredite battle. Thereafter they moved on, possibly by boat, until they came to the area of La Venta. They established a settlement there, and then migrated up the Grijalva River to the area which would become known as Zarahemla.

Second Landing: La Venta

The Book of Mormon speaks of a "first landing" in the land northward. From that it could be inferred that there was a subsequent landing south of the isthmus, which served as an embarkation point for exploration and colonization of the land southward. La Venta, located near the coast, may have been a Mulekite settlement in that early time period. Ultimately, they colonized the area known as Zarahemla and identified here as Chiapas.

After drift sands covered La Venta in about 600 BC, a new people moved in and established a culture somewhat inferior, as least in terms of monumental sculpture. Nevertheless, there are several monuments which have been erected that show very clearly transition to serpent worship from the old jaguar worship of the Olmecs. They also show breaded men, an anomaly in Mesoamerica. We do not have definitive proof that these monuments are from the time period of the Mulekites. However, the best current estimates are that they date to 400 - 550 BC.

Migration to Chiapas

There is very strong archaeological evidence for a migration from the area of Tres Zapotes (Cumorah region) to Chiapa de Corzo (south of the isthmus and in the more capital parts of the land of Zarahemla.). Sometime during the Chiapa III period (650 - 500 BC) some very unique pottery appeared in Chiapa de Corzo. This style (Tapilula unslipped) not only appeared to resemble pottery from southern Veracruz, but analysis of its composition proved that it was made from the same clay beds as Tres Zapotes pottery. At the same time, there is evidence of a new group of people settling in the Central Depression. (Warren, 1978:45-47) Thus, we have evidence for a movement in exactly the direction proposed and at the time period expected. Evidence on obsidian movements during Preclassic times indicates that there would have been know trails connecting Tres Zapotes, La Venta, and Chiapa de Corzo in 600 BC. These connections would have significantly assisted the Mulekites in making their migrations.

Settlement of the Land of Zarahemla

It is most likely that the Mulekites split into different groups and migrated to different areas within Mesoamerica, such as Oaxaca, before Zarahemla's group went up to the land of Zarahemla. I have used the word "up" advisedly since that word was also used to describe the location of Zarahemla relative to the coast. (Alma 22:31) Zarahemla was also "down" from the land of Nephi, but it was surrounded by mountains, infested in sundry times by the Gadianton robbers. The Central Depression of Chiapas, fits all these criteria.

The City of Zarahemla

The place which came to be known as the city of Zarahemla was founded by the Mulekites. (Omni 13-19) There are two large sites along the Grijalva's western bank which have the possibility of being the ancient city of Zarahemla. These are Santa Cruz, and farther upstream, Santa Rosa. Santa Rosa is the leading candidate at this time. It was the largest site on the upper Grijalva, and was surrounded by smaller sites of comparable (Late Preclassic) age. Radiocarbon dates from Santa Rosa are 270 - 390 BC +/- 90, and AD 10 +/- 90 years.

Posible Mulekite Migrations to Oaxaca

...it was shown that Oaxaca may have figured prominently in Jaredite history. Since that area is archaeologically very important, we must consider it's role in the period between the Jaredite and Nephite destruction.

There was a change in highland Oaxaca cultural patterns and settlements in about 600 C - 500 BC. From then until about 200 BC, there was a new cultural stage known as Monte Alban I, which is seen in about 84 known sites in the valley of Oaxaca. That culture had a decided Olmec flavor but was not strictly Olmec. Some archaeologists use the word "Olmecoid." I speculate that there was a massing in Oaxaca of survivors from the Jaredite holocaust. There may also have been some Mulekite contacts.

The Valley of Oaxaca/Land of Moron

This is a picture of Monte Alban which is located in the Valley of Oaxaca. There are unique parallels between the development of this site and the movements of people as recorded in the Book of Mormon. Archaeologists have time dated the site in the following manner: Time chart and comments gleaned from Joseph Allen's Exploring the Lands of the Book of Mormon 700 BC - 500 BC: There are over 200 archaeological sites in the Valley of Oaxaca. Some of the earliest show cultural traits relating to the Olmec Civilization which was more prominent along the coast of Veracruz. 500 BC - 100 BC: Monte Alban I Phase. A new people with new cultural traits take up residence at Monte Alban. Some of the traits hint of a Hebrew culture. This new culture seems to be influenced by the pre-existing Olmec Civilization as reflected in new art styles that are definitely Olmec like. 180 BC - 350 AD: Monte Alban II Phase. Beginning in 180 BC, other people enter the valley bringing new cultural traits that seem to have originated in Chiapas or Guatemala. The bearers of this new culture only settled in a few places in the valley. Their cultural traits existed side-by-side with the ceremonial traits already in common use, which suggest that the new group was a minority which somehow imposed their cultural on the existing group without destroying it. Slowly, the two groups merged together. 350 AD - 750 AD: Monte Alban III Phase. In 350 AD, the population base shows a marked decline, however, in subsequent years, the site showed increased building growth. Most of the plaza seen in the photo was completed towards the end of Phase III (750 AD), however, the quality of both buildings and ceremonial urns began a noticeable decline towards the end of this phase. Correlation with Book of Mormon text. 700 BC - 500 BC: Olmecs are synonymous with the Jaredites. The Olmec/Jaredite heartland was the agriculturally rich, crescent shaped coastal region of Veracurz, however throughout Jaredite history they consistently referred to an upland capital called Moron. The archaeological site of San Jose Mogote in the Valley of Oaxaca is the prime candidate for Moron. Oaxaca is at an elevation of 5,000' above coastal Veracruz. 500 BC - 100 BC: Monte Alban I: The book of Omni, in the Book of Mormon, tells of a second group of settlers, who, under the direction of the Lord, fled Jerusalem and were brought to the same land that the Jaredites and Nephites were living in. A branch of these new settlers may have settled in the Valley of Oaxaca, producing cultural traits that were Hebrew in nature (ceremonial urns) and interacting with the older, established group, the Olmecs/Jaredites. Indeed, this second group, related that they had cared for one Coriantumr, a Jaredite, who was the surviving leader of the warring factions that had just annihilated two million of their own people. 180 BC - 350 AD: Monte Alban II PhaseThe book of Omni also talks about a man by the name of Mosiah, who in 180 BC departed into the wilderness, from the land of Nephi (Guatemala) and came over into the land of Zarahemla (Chiapas - southern Mexico) where he discovered the people of Zarahemla. ...and they departed out of the land into the wilderness, as many as would hearken unto the voice of the Lord; and they were led by many preachings and prophesyings. And they were admonished continually by the word of God; and they were led by the power of his arm, through the wilderness until they came down into the land which is called the land of Zarahemla. And they discovered a people, who were called the people of Zarahemla. Now, there was great rejoicing among the people of Zarahemla; and also Zarahemla did rejoice exceedingly, because the Lord had sent the people of Mosiah with the plates of brass which contained the record of the Jews.( Omni 1: 12-17) Although Oaxaca is a number of miles away from Zarahemla/Central Depression of Chiapas, the Nephite influence most likely spread that far as reflected in the few scattered sites being occupied by a minority group from the Chiapas/Guatemala area. The archaeological record shows that the two groups eventually merged, while the Book of Mormon says of this time period But it came to pass that Mosiah caused that they (the people of Zarahemla) should be taught in his language...And it came to pass to pass that the people of Zarahemla, and of Mosiah, did unite together; and Mosiah was appointed to be their king. ( Omni 1:18-19) Not only did Mosiah teach them his language, but he also instructed them in their common history and religion - the Law of Moses. (This second group brought no records with them.) Naturally, from an archaeological standpoint, it looked as though the two groups merged together, which is exactly what happened. 350 AD - 750 AD: Monte Alban III Phase In 350 AD, the Nephites were forced to sign a treaty with the Lamanites which divided their lands. The Lamanites claimed all the land south of the "narrow neck"/Isthmus of Tehuantepec, while the Nephites were given the land on the north side of the Isthmus. Wars persisted over the next 35 years and it usually went bad for the Nephites. For defense against the hordes of Lamanites, the Nephites had to pull out of town, cities and villages and band together for mutual protection. This may explain why Monte Alban showed a reduction in population at this time. As the wars went from bad to worse, all who claimed to be of the political/religious affiliation termed Nephite, (something akin to today's terminology of Republican/Democrat) were called together for a final showdown with the advancing armies of the Lamanites. The year is 385 AD, and the Nephites went down to defeat, just like the Jaredites some 800 years earlier, and ironically, at the same location, the hill Cumorah. Monte Alban is now under new ownership, and the building growth that is exhibited throughout all of Maya lands is also continued at Monte Alban, but the building quality makes a noticeable decline. Building growth reaches its peak in 750 AD, and declines from there.

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